Cashew Shoot Tip Caterpillar
Hypatima haligramma
📖 Description
Hypatima haligramma — the Cashew Shoot Tip Caterpillar — is a gelechiid moth pest of cashew in India, with economic significance centred on the cashew belts of Maharashtra (Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg, Raigad — Konkan coast, India’s premier cashew belt), Goa (North Goa, South Goa), Karnataka (Uttara Kannada, Udupi, Dakshina Kannada, Kodagu), Kerala (Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Kasaragod), Andhra Pradesh (Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, Srikakulam), Odisha (Gajapati, Rayagada, Koraput), West Bengal (Purba Medinipur, South 24 Parganas), Tamil Nadu (Cuddalore, Villupuram), and Northeast India (Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram). India is the world’s largest cashew producer (~750,000 tonnes of raw cashew nuts from ~1 million ha), with cashew being a major export crop valued at ₹4,000–6,000 crore annually — the cashew processing industry employs over 500,000 workers, 95% of them women, in coastal Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra. The pest is native to India and Southeast Asia — it was first reported as a major pest of Indian cashew in the 1970s and has since become established as one of the three most damaging pests of Indian cashew (along with cashew stem and root borer and tea mosquito bug). The pest’s biology makes it particularly damaging: (1) eggs are laid singly on the underside of young leaves — inconspicuous and difficult to detect; (2) larvae are concealed inside webbed terminal shoots — protected from contact insecticides; (3) pupation occurs inside the webbed shoot — protected from foliar insecticides; (4) the pest attacks terminal shoots — directly reducing the next season’s flowering and fruit set; and (5) damage is most severe in young cashew plantations (1–5 years old) where terminal shoot loss can stunt the tree permanently. The economic impact is severe: heavy infestations can destroy 40–70% of terminal shoots in an orchard, reducing the next season’s flowering by 50–80% and yield by 30–50%. With raw cashew nuts valued at ₹80–120 per kg, even moderate infestations cause disproportionate economic loss — for a typical Konkan cashew grower cultivating 4 ha (yield 800–1,200 kg/ha), a severe H. haligramma infestation can wipe out ₹80,000–200,000 of annual income. Management is best achieved through IPM combining regular orchard sanitation (pruning and destroying infested shoots during the dormant season), tolerant varieties (Vengurla-1, Vengurla-4, Vengurla-7 — DCRS-released varieties), light trap monitoring, NSKE 5% or azadirachtin foliar sprays during peak oviposition, biological control (Trichogramma chilonis egg parasitoid releases), Btk application during early larval stages (before web formation), and conservation of natural enemies. The Directorate of Cashew Research (ICAR-DCRS, Puttur, Karnataka) is the primary research institution for cashew IPM in India and maintains a network of field stations in Maharashtra, Goa, Kerala, and Odisha for testing tolerant varieties and biocontrol agents.
⚠️ Symptoms to watch for
- Larvae web together the terminal shoots of cashew with silken threads, creating a characteristic 'webbed nest' of dried, curled leaves at the shoot tip. Larvae feed inside the web on the tender growing tissue — damaged shoots fail to elongate, the inflorescence fails to emerge, and the entire shoot tip dies. The webbed nest is the most visible diagnostic feature — brown dried leaves held together with silk at the end of cashew branches. Each larva can destroy 3–5 terminal shoots during its development, and a heavy infestation can destroy 40–70% of terminal shoots in an orchard — directly reducing the next season's flowering and fruit set. The pest is especially damaging in young cashew plantations (1–5 years old) where terminal shoot loss can stunt the tree permanently and delay the first fruit-bearing stage by 1–2 years.
🩹 Treatment
- Apply lambda-cyhalothrin 5 EC at 0.5 ml/L — effective against adults and neonate larvae. Apply chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC at 0.3 ml/L — systemic diamide; protects shoot tissue from larval feeding. Apply indoxacarb 14.5 SC at 0.5 ml/L — translaminar. Apply spinosad 45 SC at 0.3 ml/L — translaminar; IPM-compatible. Apply emamectin benzoate 5 SG at 0.25 g/L — translaminar. Apply azadirachtin 1% at 2 ml/L — antifeedant. Hand-pick and destroy webbed shoots — most cost-effective for smallholder cashew growers managing 1–5 ha. Prune infested shoots 5 cm below the web and burn the pruned material.
🌿 Organic treatments
- Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Btk) — 1 kg/ha in 500 L water; effective against neonate larvae before web formation; OMRI-listed. Spinosad 45 SC — 0.3 ml/L; derived from Saccharopolyspora spinosa; translaminar; OMRI-listed. Azadirachtin 1% (NeemAzal) — 2 ml/L; antifeedant and growth disruptor. Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5% — repels ovipositing adults. Beauveria bassiana (1×10⁹ CFU/g) at 5 g/L — entomopathogenic fungus. Mechanical removal — prune infested shoots 5 cm below the web and burn the pruned material; most cost-effective for smallholder growers. Hand-pick webbed shoots during the early instar stage (December–January). Light traps (1 per ha) — adults are attracted to UV light; mass-trapping reduces mating success. Release Trichogramma chilonis egg parasitoid wasps at 50,000/ha — most effective biological control; commercially reared by NBAIR Bangalore.
🧪 Chemical treatments
- Lambda-cyhalothrin 5 EC — 0.5 ml/L; contact + stomach pyrethroid; effective against adults and neonate larvae; 7-day PHI. Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC (Coragen) — 0.3 ml/L; anthranilic diamide; systemic; low mammalian toxicity (WHO Class U). Indoxacarb 14.5 SC (Avaunt) — 0.5 ml/L; voltage-dependent sodium channel blocker; translaminar. Spinosad 45 SC (Tracer) — 0.3 ml/L; GABA agonist; translaminar; IPM-compatible. Emamectin benzoate 5 SG (Proclaim) — 0.25 g/L; activates chloride channels; translaminar. Avoid organophosphates (chlorpyrifos, quinalphos, monocrotophos) — restricted in many Indian states and banned under the Cashew Board of India's IPM guidelines; rotate IRAC groups to prevent resistance.
🛡️ Prevention
- Practise regular orchard sanitation — prune and destroy all infested shoots during the dormant season (November–December) before adults emerge. Maintain orchard hygiene — remove cashew crop debris, fallen leaves, and weed growth under the canopy. Use light traps at 1 per ha from November to March to monitor adult flight activity. Release Trichogramma chilonis egg parasitoid wasps preventively at 50,000/ha during peak oviposition (December–February) — most effective biological control. Plant cashew varieties with tolerance to shoot tip caterpillar — Vengurla series (Vengurla-1, Vengurla-4, Vengurla-7 — DCRS-released varieties), Ullal-3, BPP-8. Apply NSKE 5% as a foliar spray on cashew terminals during peak oviposition (December–January in Maharashtra Konkan). Conserve natural enemies by avoiding broad-spectrum insecticides — the Cashew Board of India and ICAR-DCRS (Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur) jointly promote IPM for Indian cashew growers. Prune infested shoots 5 cm below the web and burn the pruned material during the early instar stage (December–January) — most cost-effective prevention measure. Maintain 10 m × 10 m spacing between cashew trees — improves ventilation and reduces pest build-up. Avoid intercropping with susceptible hosts during the establishment phase. Plough fallow orchards deeply in May–June to expose and kill soil-pupating larvae.
🪴 Affected plants
- Cashew (Anacardium occidentale — primary and only known host). In India, the pest is most damaging in cashew belts of Maharashtra (Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg, Raigad — Konkan coast), Goa (North Goa, South Goa), Karnataka (Uttara Kannada, Udupi, Dakshina Kannada, Kodagu), Kerala (Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Kasaragod), Andhra Pradesh (Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, Srikakulam), Odisha (Gajapati, Rayagada, Koraput), West Bengal (Purba Medinipur, South 24 Parganas), Tamil Nadu (Cuddalore, Villupuram), and Northeast India (Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram).
🦋 Natural predators
- Trichogramma chilonis (egg parasitoid wasp — commercially reared by NBAIR Bangalore; release rate 50,000/ha). Apanteles species (larval braconid parasitoid — attacks larvae inside webbed shoots through oviposition through the silk web). Brachymeria species (chalcidid pupal parasitoid). Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi (green lacewing — predator of eggs and neonate larvae). Coccinella septempunctata (7-spot ladybird — predator of eggs and neonate larvae). Spiders (Thomisidae — crab spiders; Salticidae — jumping spiders) — ambush adults. Predatory ants (Oecophylla smaragdina — weaver ant; effective predator on cashew in Kerala, Karnataka, and Northeast India). Birds (drongos, mynas, babblers) — attack exposed larvae during web construction. Natural enemies are most effective in unsprayed cashew orchards and in orchards with intercropped cover crops (Pueraria, Centrosema) that provide habitat for natural enemies.
🌱 Host plants
- Cashew (Anacardium occidentale — primary and only known host). The pest is monophagous on cashew — it has not been recorded on any other plant species.
🔄 Lifecycle
- Egg → Larva (5 instars, shoot-webbing) → Pupa (inside webbed shoot) → Adult.
- Females lay 80–150 eggs singly on the underside of young cashew leaves.
- Eggs hatch in 5–7 days.
- Larvae web together terminal shoots with silken threads, creating a 'webbed nest' of dried, curled leaves; larvae feed inside the web on the tender growing tissue for 18–25 days, moulting 5 times; each larva destroys 3–5 terminal shoots during its development.
- Mature larva pupates inside the webbed shoot; pupation lasts 10–14 days.
- New adults emerge, mate within 24 hours, and females begin oviposition 2–3 days later.
- Adult lifespan 10–15 days (females) or 7–10 days (males).
- Total cycle 35–50 days at 28 °C; 5–7 overlapping generations per year in Indian cashew-growing belts, with peak activity during the post-monsoon vegetative flush (November–March).
- Pest survives southwest monsoon (June–September) as diapausing pupae inside webbed shoots.
📅 Season
- Peak activity November–March (post-monsoon vegetative flush in Maharashtra Konkan, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala — cashew produces new terminal shoots in this period, which is the primary oviposition target).
- Lower activity April–May (hot dry summer — adult activity reduced; pest survives as diapausing pupae).
- No activity June–September (southwest monsoon — heavy rain suppresses adult flight and larval development; pest survives as diapausing pupae inside webbed shoots).
- Secondary peak October–November (early post-monsoon — adult emergence from diapausing pupae with first dry weather).
🔎 Appearance
- Small, slender gelechiid moth with a 12–15 mm wingspan.
- Forewings are dark brownish-grey with characteristic blackish, raised scale-tufts along the dorsum, giving the forewing a 'rough' appearance.
- Hindwings are pale grey, fringed with long hairs.
- At rest, wings are folded flat over the body in a triangular shape.
- Larvae are pale brownish-yellow caterpillars reaching 12–15 mm, with a dark brown head capsule and small dark spots (pinacula) along each body segment.
- Larvae are concealed inside webbed-together terminal shoots of cashew, where they feed on the tender growing tissue.
- Pupae are dark brown, 7–9 mm, found inside a silken cocoon inside the webbed shoot.
- Eggs are minute, white, 0.4 mm, laid singly on the underside of young cashew leaves.
💥 Damage level
- Severe
🔁 Reproduction rate
- Moderate
🗺️ Geographic regions
- Indian Subcontinent
- South Asia
- Southeast Asia. In India: Maharashtra (Ratnagiri
- Sindhudurg
- Raigad — Konkan coast)
- Goa (North Goa
- South Goa)
- Karnataka (Uttara Kannada
- Udupi
- Dakshina Kannada
- Kodagu
- Chikkamagaluru)
- Kerala (Kollam
- Thiruvananthapuram
- Kozhikode
- Kasaragod
- Malappuram)
- Andhra Pradesh (Visakhapatnam
- East Godavari
- Srikakulam
- Vizianagaram)
- Odisha (Gajapati
- Rayagada
- Koraput
- Malkangiri)
- West Bengal (Purba Medinipur
- South 24 Parganas)
- Tamil Nadu (Cuddalore
- Villupuram
- Cuddalore)
- Tripura
- Meghalaya (East Garo Hills
- West Garo Hills)
- Mizoram. Pest native to India and Southeast Asia — first reported as a major pest of Indian cashew in the 1970s.
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